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Recent improvements in the position of women in the labour market in Asia Pacific countries suggest that gender inequality in the region is a thing of the past’. Discuss with reference to individual Asia Pacific countries.

Introduction

One of the most striking phenomena of recent times has been the growing proportion of women in the labour force, facilitating women in several regions to utilize their potential in the labour market and to attain economic independence. The share of women with work in total employment has risen slightly in the past ten years to just above 40 percent. In 2003 1.1 billion were women out of the 2.8 billion people that had worked.

Women workers have increased from approximately one-third to over two/fifths of the adult labour force in many of the Asia Pacific countries. This increase in the female labour force has two components to it

The increase in the total labour force consequent on population growth and change in the age structure

The increase in women’s labour force participation faster than that for men.

Economic globalisation has notably transformed labour markets in Asia during the last three decades. A significant feature of this transformation is the growing importance of female labour at the core of economic progression. In recent decades, women in the Asia Pacific region have experienced progress in their absolute position in terms of literacy, education and training, labour force participation and employment in a growing number of sectors and professions.

It is ironic that the Asia Pacific region is the moist dynamic and quickly growing region in the world, and yet the women in the region remain among some of the most disadvantaged in the world. Unfortunately only 10% of women participate in the formal labour market, although they make a major contribution to the informal labour market and to agricultural activities.

The countries of Asia and the Pacific recognize equality between men and women as a matter of fundamental rights and citizenship. However, improved equality in terms of quantity of male and female workers has yet to result in real socioeconomic empowerment for women, an equitable distribution of household responsibilities, equal pay for work of equal value, and gender balance across all occupations. Women have been disproportionately concentrated in the service sector. Their participation as nurses, teachers, and social workers has often been justified as an extension of women’s nurturing role into the public domain. Women all over the Asia Pacific region also work longer hours than men. In many countries hit by the economic ravages of the 1980s, women, especially very poor women, are now working 60-90 hours a week just to try to maintain their meagre living standards.

Although official statistics on home-based work are scarce, there is evidence that home-based work is becoming increasingly common, especially for women in the Asia Pacific region due to the growing use of subcontracting and industrial outsourcing systems and the spread of ICT.

With reference to individual Asia pacific countries Japan was the earliest country to globalize in the Asia Pacific whose post-War emergence as the “classic” export-oriented fast-growth economy dates back to around the mid-1960s (Carney and O’Kelley 1990).

The female labor force participation rate by age shows an M-shaped curve. This curve indicates that Japanese women leave their job once they are married or have children, and they begin or return to work after their kids get older: also know as a “quit-and-return pattern”. Compared with the situation ten years ago (1996), the participation rate of women in the 25-29 age group has increased by 7.8 percentage points, while the participation rate of women in the 30-34 age group, which formed the bottom of the M-shaped curve, has risen 8.0 percentage points. There has thus been a noticeable change in the M-shaped curve, which has become flatter over the decade.

The wage gap between men and women has also changed over the past 3 decades. Female wages amounted to 42.8% of male wages in 1960 and this rose to 66.5% of male wages in 2002. The shortage of labour in the period of rapid economic growth caused wages to rise, and the continuing presence of females in production work also caused the wage gap to shrink. Women have moved from agricultural work to office work and the service sector (represented by an 80 per cent drop in agriculture and an increase of 3.6 times in the clerical and service sectors).

The unemployment rate is lower in Japan for females at 3.9 per cent and higher in male at 4.3 per cent (ILO Global Employment Trends for Women, March 2007)

The proportion of female labour in the entire work-force was 38.2 per cent in 1920 and 37.9 per cent in 1980. The labour market has experienced a long-term stability. What has changed, though, is the pattern of work, with a shift of female labour from the primary to the tertiary sectors of the economy. Over the long term, this reflects technological progress and improved female education. The percentage of students advancing to high school in Japan is extremely high, with the percentage of female students exceeding that of male students. Female students have recently come to major in more diversified areas.

The percentage of female employment was highest in "medical, health care and welfare" (76.4 percent) in 2006. The next highest sector were "eating and drinking places, accommodations" (59.6 percent) and "education, learning support" (54.7 percent).

The pattern of long term employment and seniority based wage has its roots in the 1930’s. This is one of the main causes for the pay gap and low number of women at managerial positions in Japan. Only 9% of women are in managerial positions in Japan despite economic and political factors favourable for 'empowering' women. According to the Gender Empowerment Measure, Japan ranks 44th among 70 countries (UNDP, 2003: pp. 314–317). But if the proportion of managerial positions are accounted the score drops to 62, with only 8 countries behind.

Source: Basic Statistical Survey on Wage structure (MHLW, 2002)

The number of female Japanese managers was historically very low and its improvement has not been noticeable.

In Japan a women may legally have the same rights as a man, but she is often unable to fully enjoy those rights because of social and economic barriers. Gender equality is one area in which Japan lags behind in comparison to other highly industrialized nations. Though the presence of women in the workforce has increased dramatically in the Post-World War II era, many barriers continue to exist which deny women full equal access.

Japan’s lead in globalization was followed rapidly by S Korea, Hong Kong and Taiwan, and in the 1970s, by Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia. All these countries had a striking dependence on female labour in the new and fast growing manufactures and services (Joekes 1995).

In Indonesia, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan (Province of China) and Thailand modern contraception has been extensively accepted. Many girls are now educated and the numbers of women who have moved into professional, technical and administrative positions has increased significantly in the recent decades.

Economic factors explain part of the narrowing of gender gaps. High economic growth has a positive impact for women. High-growth countries in Asia Pacific enjoyed a narrowing of gender gaps in labour force participation. Women's positions have been strengthened by educational and other policies. In Singapore for instance, female participation in the labour force has increased strongly. But in Hong Kong the occupational segregation has increased between 1971 and 1991.

The labour force participation rate for women in Singapore was 28.2 in 1970 and rose to 54.3 in 2007. Women with advanced levels of education in countries such as Singapore have found employment as professionals in banks, finance and insurance firms, and other corporate service providers.

In countries such as Indonesia, South Korea, Malaysia and Singapore the official labour force participation rates for women are still significantly below those for men but the share of women in the adult labour force has grown between 6-12% between 1970 and 1997. The male-female wage gap in South Korea has also decreased since the late 1980s.

Thailand and Malaysia have successfully ensured improved female labour quality through investments in education and health. But they have not yet made the transition to high productivity labour. Countries like Singapore, Hong Kong and S Korea (despite the effect of the recent crisis on S Korea) have made the transition to the high productivity labour, and are now at the other end of the spectrum. However S Korea’s labour market is still deeply gendered (like Japan’s) and structurally dependent on the flexibility of its female labour force which bears the bulk of the costs of economic adjustment.

There is not a vast difference in the unemployment rates in these countries. In Indonesia the 2006 female unemployment rate is 13.3 per cent, compared to 8.6 for men. In Malaysia the 2004 rate was 3.8 % (male rate - 3.4 %). But in Thailand the unemployment rate is the same for men and women - 1.7%. (Country figures from the ILO Global Employment Trends for Women, March 2007)

The share of women in the manufacturing sector often exceeded 80 percent in Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan and Thailand. This has generated unprecedented employment opportunities for women, saving them from the prospect of unemployment or low-paid work in the informal sector. Wage employment has given women access to independent incomes and enabled them to contribute significantly to family incomes, helping enhance their status and value within the family.

China has also started relying on the female labour force due to the globalisation. The labour market in this country also show a higher than previous employment of women workers (Mitter and Rowbotham 1995, Pearson and Mitter 1995). Women have increasingly played a crucial part in modern China’s economy.

Over the past two decades, China has undergone social, political and economic changes.

After the establishment of socialist power in 1949 China has achieved a great rate of women’s participation in employment. Over the years the state has introduced series of progressive policies designed to encourage equal opportunities and protect women’s rights and interests in their working, family and social life. The nature of the labour market has changed and recently the modern Human Resource Management practices were introduced to the Chinese state-owned enterprises.

Chinese women do not see their marriage as an obstruction to their working life. The one - child policy and child care facilities have helped them immensely. In China the unemployment rate for female is as low as 2.8% and is higher in male at 3.6%. (ILO Global Employment Trends for Women, March 2007). Women in China contributed to 8.5% of the total force of carders, which rose to 33.8% by the end of 1996 (Mung, 1995).

The country has a high female participation in politics and government. In 2001, women accounted for over 21 per cent of all deputies in the National People’s Congress (NPC). But they were usually assigned leadership responsibilities for non-strategic areas such as family planning, health and education (J Howell).

Table 2. Gender Distribution in Employment in China

Source: http:www.women.org.cn

Women’s labour force participation is strong at 46.6 per cent of the total workforce. The economy may increase opportunities available to women. China has the world’s fastest growing ICT (Information and Communications Technology) market. This market has increased the prospects of women to work in high skilled jobs.

The Occupational segregation has increased in China between 1982 and 1990. Women are concentrated in low skilled jobs with low pay due to which the pay gap has increased. In 2000, women employment reached 58% in public health, sports, and social services; 48% in marketing and sales; 46% in education, culture and media; 42% in agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry and fishery; and, 18% in manufacturing; whereas men are concentrated in high skilled jobs like mangers and technicians that offer good benefits and high pay.

Recent decades have witnessed a significant increase in the gender pay inequality in China. According to the National Bureau of Statistics of China (NBSC), the ratio of female to male employees’ average earnings had fallen by 8% from 1987 to 2004. This is despite the fact that female employees’ education attainment had risen faster than male employees. Gender discrimination is prohibited in China. The Chinese Labor Law specifies that no one can be discriminated based on gender, ethnicity or religious belief. However, the enforcement of this legislation has been weak so far. The ratio of women’s average earnings to men’s decreased from 84% in 1987 to 76% percent in 2004, demonstrating the deteriorating status of the gender pay gap. Discrimination may be the primary cause.

In general, the percentage of women in managerial positions compares unfavourably with that of men, with the majority of women clustered at the inferior jobs. The country is ranked 73 out of 128 countries by the gender gap index 2007. In China, where gender equality has been encouraged for over five decades, has not shown any momentous gain on the other Asian economies. A survey conducted in 1995 found that while 19 per cent of men surveyed were in managerial positions, only 2 per cent of women surveyed were in a similar position (Cooke).

Most recently India has also started relying on the female labour force. The gap between skilled men and women in India is shrinking. The percentage of skilled women living in urban areas (14 %) is close to that of skilled men (16 %). The average annual growth rate in skilled women (7 %) was about 1.5 times higher than the growth rate in skilled men in 2007. The proportion of women in the formal labour force has grown drastically than their male counterparts in the past. The 1991 census shows that the number of male main workers increased 23% since the 1981 census while the number of female main workers increased 40 percent.

The female labour force participation rose to 43.6 in 1995; though male participation rate was far ahead at 87.6%.

The wage gap in 1987-88 decreased to 1.3 from 1.7 in 1965. Education has been found to be vital in reducing the wage gap.

Women comprise only 31% of the total paid workforce.

Female workers are employed in lower-skilled, lower-paid positions, and do not hold managerial positions. In India is around 80.7% of the female labour force works in agricultural and industrial sector. Nearly two-thirds of women in manufacturing are employed as production operators or manual workers. The only other sector of the economy that employs more than 5% of working women is the service sector where they hold low skilled job positions. They are concentrated in clerical, sales and services jobs that are traditionally regarded as female occupations.

The public sector hires a greater share of women than does the private sector, but wages in the public sector are less egalitarian despite laws requiring equal pay for equal work (Madheswaran and Lakshmanasamy, 1996).

A study says that while women represented 38 per cent of enrolment in higher education, their workforce participation rates remained very low, at about 18 per cent in urban India. This low engagement arises from the low quality of many jobs offered to women and India's societal structure.

Major shortcoming of India's talent pool is the evidently low participation of highly-educated women in economic activities. The education has not translated into more working women in India. Changes in the economic environment of India, women’s changing role and status, and the impact of information technology present clear opportunities to Indian women managers

Since 1971 there has been a stabilisation of women’s employment rate, which was 31% in 1970 and 30% in 2000 in India (UNCDB, variable 4270).

The gender gap index 2007 indicated that India ranks 114 out of 128 countries.

Although most women in India work and contribute to the economy in one form or another, much of their work is not documented or accounted for in official statistics. There are estimates that over 90 percent of working women are involved in the informal sector and not included in official statistics (The World Bank, 1991).

Majority of women in India prefer working at home. Indian companies have to start facilitating this change. This would mean looking away from the nine-to-five system of work hours; or setting up a day-care facility for employees' children; or other family-friendly benefits such as flexible work schedules, telecommuting, family leave and job sharing. These measures to tap into India's underutilised female talent pool will unlock new workforce possibilities for employers.

Conclusion

Women in Asia Pacific are poorer to a greater extent than men because -

• More women than men work in agriculture;

• Women are over-represented in the informal sector;

• Women are under-employed to a larger extent than men in the formal sector (except in Hong Kong, China and the Philippines);

• More women than men work part-time; and

• More women than men are engaged in unpaid activities such as household work.

The Asia and Pacific region’s performance on gender-related issues has been mixed. Despite substantial progress toward gender parity in education, the region is seriously “off track” on other indicators of women’s capabilities and opportunities.

Women’s high level of education is not directly reflected in the positions they occupy in the labour market. To achieve a balanced workforce between men and women in the Asia Pacific region -

• It is necessary to have a high-level of commitment to change the existing culture within a firm or organization

• Equal employment opportunity policies should be transparent, fair and be closely monitored

• More decisive measures are needed to harmonize remuneration structures for both male and female employees.

And as Mr. Gek-Boo Ng, (ILO Regional Director for Asia and the Pacific) said “Many jobs in Asia Pacific are filled by word-of-mouth, or other non-transparent channels. This can hinder the efficient functioning of labour markets and perpetuate discrimination.”

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